_ Once one starts serious Bible study, it isn’t long before they run across the terms “Masoretic Text” and “Septuagint.” So, what are these documents? The Masoretic Text is the standard version of the Hebrew Old Testament as it exists today. Until the sixth century A.D. only the consonants of the Hebrew OT were written down; the language contained no vowels. The tradition of correct pronunciation of ancient Hebrew words was passed down orally. Between A.D. 500 and 1000, a group of Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes (from maser- to hand down, transmit) developed a system of adding vowels, accents, and notes that guaranteed more accurate reading and copying of the ancient text. No other text from the ancient world was as carefully safeguarded as the Masoretic Text. Its tradition came to be regarded as authoritative and can still be considered highly trustworthy. The Masoretes themselves date from the early Christian period until the Middle Ages In existence today: The earliest complete Masoretic manuscript, the Leningrad Codex (A.D. 1009) is used for the standard edition of the Hebrew Bible. Another source states that the standard for Hebrew Bibles printed today is the Masoretic Text from A.D. 1088, currently housed in the Saint Petersburg Public Library. Another ancient copy, although partially lost, is the Aleppo Codex (A.D. 925) The founding of the Dead Sea Scrolls has shown amazing consistency between the Masoretic Text and the original scrolls, even though they are separated by 1,100 years. This gives much credence to the idea that the Masoretic Text is a reliable copy that is faithful to the original meaning intended by the writers of the OT. The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament (both Hebrew and Aramaic), along with a number of noncanonical Greek works known by Protestant Christians as the Aprocrypha. The title “Septuagint” is Latin for “seventy.” Legend/tradition holds that 72 elders, working independently of one another, each produced an identical translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into Greek around 285 B.C. Originally designed for Greek-speaking Jews in Egypt, the Septuagint was completed by various translators in or around Alexandria between the third and first centuries B.C. It came to have great authority among the non-Palestinian Jews, and allowed the Greeks to read the divine revelation in their own tongue. The Bible of the early church, it is frequently quoted in the NT and by early church fathers. It is still the official text of the Greek Church. The Septuagint is organized in the following order: the Pentateuch, followed by the historical, poetic, wisdom, and prophetic books. The order is loosely followed by our English translations. Due to the fact that various translators at various times with varying capabilities and styles. At times, when translated into English, the two versions are almost identical. Yet, in other places, they can be quite different. One example of this is in the book of Jeremiah. However, several partial Jeremiah manuscripts found in Hebrew among the Dead Sea Scrolls may help provide some answers to this complex issue. Two significant manuscripts agree with the Masoretic Text, but another text reflects the wording of the Septuagint. This evidence suggests not that one or the other of the MT or Sep. has errors, but rather that two distinct Hebrew editions of the book of Jeremiah were in circulation. This can also cause confusion for some reading the NT. Quotations from the OT appear, and when the reader goes back to the OT to read the actual text, they might discover that it is quite different. This is due to the fact that the OT was translated from the Masoretic text, whereas the NT is citing the same passage as it appears in the Septuagint. The Septuagint was used by Hellenistic Jews and by the early church. Sources: -Catholic Book Publishing, “St. Joseph Edition, New American Bible.” New York, NY: Catholic Book Publishing. -Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, “New International Version: Archaeological Study Bible.” Zondervan Corporation: Grand Rapids, MI, 2005. -Green, Kevin (compiler), “All-In-One Bible Reference Guide.” Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008.
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Hebrew “sheth.” Various meanings from different sources- appointed, compensate, granted, or substitute. His name signifies that he was the replacement or substitute for Abel. Adam and Eve’s third son, born after Cain murdered Abel. The father of Enosh. Founder of the line of faith, which eventually includes Jesus Christ. Seth died at the age of 912. Christian, Jewish, and Islam tradition all have small branches of mysticism about Seth, his various attributes, his status as a prophet, etc. Biblical References: Genesis 4:25-26: “….she gave birth to a son and named him Seth, saying, ‘God has granted me another child in place of Abel, since Cain killed him.’ Seth also had a son, and he named him Enosh…..” Genesis 5:3-4: “…and he named him Seth. After Seth was born, Adam lived 800 years…” Genesis 5:6-8: “When Seth had lived 105 years, he became the father of Enosh. And after he became the father of Enosh, Seth lived 807 years and had other sons and daughters. Altogether, Seth lived 912 years, and then he died.” Sources: Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. (2005). “New International Version: Archaeological Study Bible”. Zondervan Corporation, Grand Rapids, MI. Green, Kevin (compiler). (2008). Eden. “All-In-One Bible Reference Guide”. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. Lockyear Sr., H. (Ed.) (1986) Eden. “Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible”. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers. _The Hebrew spelling of this word means ‘breath,’ ‘vapor,’ that which is ‘insubstantial.’ However, it is more likely that the name should be linked with the Accadian word meaning ‘son.’ Abel was the second son of Adam and Eve and was murdered by his brother Cain because God preferred Abel’s sacrifice over Cain’s. Abel is referenced multiple times throughout the Bible, including in Heb 11:4; 1 John 3:12; Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51; and Heb 12:24, always as a faithful, innocent, righteous man. Biblical references: Genesis 4:2- “Next she bore his brother Abel. Abel became a keeper of flocks, and Cain a tiller of the soil. Genesis 4:4- “…while Abel, for his part, brought one of the best firstlings of his flock. The Lord looked with favor on Abel and his offering,…” Genesis 4:8- “Cain said to his brother Abel, “Let us go out in the field.” When they were in the field, Cain attacked his brother Abel and killed him.” Sources: Catholic Book Publishing. (various) Genesis: Chapter 2 Notes. “St. Joseph Edition, New American Bible.” New York, NY: Catholic Book Publishing. Green, Kevin (compiler). (2008). Eden. “All-In-One Bible Reference Guide”. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. Lockyear Sr., H. (Ed.) (1986) Eden. “Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible”. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers. The Pentateuch consists of the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. It is derived from the Greek "pentateuchos" meaning "five containers" or "five-volumed." It enjoys particular prestige among Jews as the "Law" or "Torah," the concrete expression of God's will. It also has the benefit of being containing five books that have NEVER had their canonicity called into question (by either Jews, Catholics, or Protestants). The division of the material into five sections is supported by both the Septuagint, a 3rd century B.C. translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek, as well as the Samaritan Pentateuch, which dates from even earlier. As for material, it contains: a body of legal doctrine, the formation of the People of God (Abraham and the patriarchs), Moses and the oppressed Hebrews in Egypt, the birth of Israel in the Sinai covenant, the journey to the promised land, and the "discourses" of Moses. The time frame is from creation to the end of the Mosaic era. Many scholars divide/identify the material as coming from four major historical traditions/sources: Yahwist (J), Elohist (E), Priestly (P), and Deuteronomic (D). This theory is called the "Documentary Hypothesis." However, this is a simplification, and one that many scholars are now rejecting, due to the simple fact that all four of these "divisions" draw upon even older material from different sources (not just from four major sources), and that it ignores what we know of literary traditions of the time (for example, how stories would often be told from two or more points of view, even by the same author). However, other scholars feel that modifying the initial hypothesis, not rejecting it outright, is the proper course of action. By looking at the Pentateuch from the Documentary Hypothesis viewpoint, one can accept the fact that Moses was not the sole author of this entire section of the Bible, as previously believed. It also gives us deeper insight in the meaning behind various verses if one can understand the background and viewpoint of that particular "author" or school of authorship. It must be noted that more conservative scholars vehemently reject this theory, saying that it shows a complete misunderstanding of how early writings were passed on, and "rewrites the Bible" by forcing a 19th century and later editing process on material that is ancient. When we first contemplate Eden, the best place to start is with the exact Biblical verses that talk of Eden. After reading the Bible verses, we will look at possible word origins and translation notes as well as the various locations scholars have suggested for Eden. And finally, we will look at the various meanings and interpretations that can be drawn from the verses about the Garden of Eden. In this case, I have taken these verses from the St. Joseph Edition, New American Bible. Genesis, Chapter 2, Verses 8-15: 8 Then the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east, and he placed there the man whom he had formed. 9 Out of the ground the Lord God made various trees grow that were delightful to look at and good for food, with the tree of life in the middle of the garden and the tree of knowledge of good and bad. 10 A river rises in Eden to water the garden; beyond there it divides and becomes four branches. 11 The name of the first is the Pishon; it is the one that winds through the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold. 12 The gold of that land is excellent; bdellium and lapis lazuli are also there. 13 The name of the second river is the Gihon; it is the one that winds all through the land of Cush. 14 The name of the third river is the Tigris; it is the one that flows east of Asshur. The fourth river is the Euphrates. 15 The Lord God then took the man and settled him in the garden of Eden, to cultivate and care for it. Word Translation & Origins: In the Saint Joseph Bible, the notes for this section note that in Sumerian the word Eden is derived from ‘eden’, meaning ‘fertile plain. In Hebrew, a similar-sounding word means ‘delight.’ Together: the garden in Eden could therefore be understood as the ‘garden of delight,’ so that, through the Greek version, it comes to us as ‘paradise,’ literally, a ‘pleasure park.’ The Archeological Study Bible has a slightly different meaning for the words. They state that the Sumerian word ‘eden’ means ‘steppe’ or ‘open field,’ and the identical Semitic word, denotes ‘luxury’ or ‘delight.’ The Garden of Eden is not only the name of the garden in which the first humans resided but also a metaphor for the Garden of God, or Yahweh’s dwelling place. The Oxford Illustrated Companion to the Bible agrees with the general meanings stated above: that some scholars connect the word ‘eden’ with a Sumerian meaning of “wilderness” or “plain,” while others have proposed a derivation from the Hebrew word for “delight” or “pleasure.” Therefore, we identify Eden as an ideal garden of delight, or paradise. Location: *****St. Jerome’s commentary takes perhaps the most logical stand about the location: it states simply that the Garden of Eden is the locale of God. They take the following reasons as evidence: “The river going forth from Eden to water the garden and thence dividing into four rivers of the world, may be the ‘flow’ referenced in verse 6. In some Ugaritic and Akk texts the high god dwells at the ‘source of the double deep,’ i.e., the source of all life-giving waters of the earth. The totality of the world is symbolized by ‘four,’ as in the Akk phrase ‘the four quarters of the earth.’ St. Jerome’s commentary goes on to state flatly that the location of Pishon and Havilah in this text is unknown. Later in the Bible, Havilah is a descendant of Shem and Gihon is the name of a spring in Jerusalem. However, here the river Gihon flows through Cush in southern Mesopotamia (as deduced by the known positions of the Tigris and Euphrates). The Zondervan All-in-One Bible Reference Guide also admits the truth: we simply do not have sufficient evidence to determine where the Garden of Eden was actually located. The Archeological Study Bible puts forth possible meanings for the Gihon River and Pishon River, with the Gihon possibly being Hebrew for ‘to gush’ and the Pishon being understood as a form of the Semitic verb ‘to spring up.’ Even with these meanings, the ASB admits that the two rivers are difficult to identify. *****Some scholars believe that the Gihon refers to the Nile, as Cush is sometimes associated with Nubia, south of Egypt. This is a belief with many complications as by naming the Gihon as the Nile, it makes the rest of the geography impossible, as the other rivers are in a completely different region. *****Other scholars identify Cush as the land of Kassites, east of the Tigris, which was also known as Kush during ancient times. This theory has the benefit of placing three of the rivers noted (Gihon, Tigris, & Euphrates) in the same region. Supported by the verse that God placed the Garden “in the east,” presumably, to the east of Canaan/Israel, where most of the later events of the Bible took place. *****A final theory is that Gihon and Pishon were simply parts of the Tigris or Euphrates Rivers, in the form of canals or tributaries. This is also supported by the verse that God placed the Garden “in the east,” presumably, to the east of Canaan/Israel, where most of the later events of the Bible took place These theories, while separate from each other, can be incorporated into another set of theories, these based around the words in Verse 10: “A river rises in Eden to water the garden; beyond there it divides and becomes four branches.” These theories debate whether Eden was upriver of the four branches, encompassed the four rivers, or was downstream of the location of the four branches. *****The first theory is that the four rivers shared a common source in Eden, placing Eden in northern Mesopotamia or Armenia. However, the fact that the Tigris and Euphrates lack a common source makes this theory suspect. *****The second theory is that Eden is upriver of the four branches. This makes some sense with the current geography as the Tigris and Euphrates do indeed converge in southern Mesopotamia before they empty into the Persian Gulf. In this scenario Eden may still, as above, have been located in northern Mesopotamia or in the mountains in Armenia, from which the Tigris and Euphrates spring. *****A third is theory is that Eden was in southern Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates converge. This would place Eden downriver of the four branches. *****A fourth theory is that Eden refers to an extremely large area of land, and that the four rivers referred to did not actually “meet” at any point, and instead, that they simply flowed within the boundaries of Eden. In this theory, some believe that the Pishon and Gihon respresent the Indus and Nile, indicating that Eden includes the entire Fertile Crescent from India to Egypt. Further Notes: Once we have dispensed with the many, many theories about where Eden was located, we must look beyond the literal words to the various meanings and interpretations included in these verses. Eden has at its center the tree of life and the tree of knowledge. Thus, the garden is not simply an earthly garden, but a place created especially by God for humans. It is a model of the perfect relationship that existed between God and humans before the disobedience. According to the Oxford Illustrated Companion to the Bible, later prophets had an altered meaning of the term. I’ll quote directly from that source: “The image of the garden of Eden reappears in somewhat altered form in the later prophets. The expulsion from Eden functions as a metaphor for the coming judgment against the nations (Tyre: Ezek. 28:11-19; Egypt: Ezek 31:8,9,16,18), and for the coming judgment of the day of the Lord (Joel 2:3). The garden of Eden is also an image of promise; in parallel with ‘the garden of the Lord,’ Eden appears in Isaiah 51:3 as a metaphor for the renewal of the land of Israel after the Babylonian exile (see also Ezek. 26:25, Rev. 22:2-3).” Further reading: I found a wonderful site that goes much more deeply into the matter of the location that I do. If you want more- or more complete- information, please visit: http://www.israel-a-history-of.com/biblical-garden-of-eden.html. Sources: Brown, Raymond E. (S.S.), Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (S.J.), & Murphy, Roland E. (O. Carm). (1990) Genesis. “The New Jerome Biblical Commentary.” Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Catholic Book Publishing. (various) Genesis: Chapter 2 Notes. “St. Joseph Edition, New American Bible.” New York, NY: Catholic Book Publishing. Geisler, Norman & Howe, Thomas. (1992). Genesis 2:8. “The Big Book of Bible Difficulties.” Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books. Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. (2005). The Location of Eden. “New International Version: Archaeological Study Bible”. Zondervan Corporation, Grand Rapids, MI. Green, Kevin (compiler). (2008). Eden. “All-In-One Bible Reference Guide”. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. Lockyear Sr., H. (Ed.) (1986) Eden. “Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible”. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers. Metzger, Bruce M. & Coogan, Michael D. (2003). Eden. “The Oxford Illustrated Companion to the Bible”. New York, NY: Tess Press. The Jordan River served a natural boundary for Canaan. The head of the river is near Mount Hermon in the north. It then flows through two lakes on its’ way to the Dead Sea in the south. As the Jordan River leaves Lake Galilee, it enters a deep valley with steep sides that actually formed a kind of jungle. The few natural crossings on the Jordan River were well-guarded and considered a strategic advantage. (Source: MJF Books. (2006). Everyday Living: Bible Life and Times. Thomas Nelson, Inc. New York, NY.) The form and order of the covenant between God and the Israelites was much used during the 14th and 13th centuries B.C. The same basic format: prologue, what is expected of each party, blessings and curses, etc. was used. This helps place the book of Deuteronomy firmly during that time period. If compiled later (as some scholars claim), it would be more likely to follow the treaty formats of that time. In Deuteronomy 8-9, both phylacteries (see Bible Facts page) and mezuzots are mentioned. Mezuzots are small containers- wooden or metal- in which passages of Scripture are placed. These are then attached to the doorframes of their houses. The invisible God of the Israelites was very different from the gods of other cultures. The images of Baal and Asherah were central to the religion of many in Canaan and surrounding regions. Theriomorphic (part animal, part human) gods were prevalent in Egypt. Astral cults were common in Assyria and/or Neo-Babylonian areas. There were cities of refuge that those guilty of manslaughter could flee to. One purpose was to avoid having the family of the slain kill the person who committed manslaughter. Another purpose was that in these cities, there were judges who specifically determined what the punishment for manslaughter should be. If death was given as a sentence, the person guilty would be handed over to the family of the slain for punishment. |
Jennifer Becker Landsberger
Who am I? Freelance writer (magazines, websites, & copywriting), Catholic, military wife, and Mensan. Double Bachelor's in History & Psychology. Witnessing by charity and love are above all. Studying the Bible and beyond helps me on this quest. Feel free to join my walk into the Bible.
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Oh creator of the universe, who has set the stars in the heavens and causes the sun to rise and set, shed the light of your wisdom into the darkness of my mind. Fill my thoughts with a loving knowledge of you, that I may bring you like to others. Just as you can make even babies speak your truth, instruct my tongue and guide my pen to convey the wonderful glory of the Gospel. Make my intellect sharp, my memory clear, and my words eloquent, so that I may faithfully interpret the mysteries what you have revealed. Categories
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I promise: 1. I will pray that God's grace helps illuminate all of our interactions- both those of simple reading and more active conversations. 2. I will communicate with you respectfully and civilly. These are (rightly) issues which we feel passionate about. But even in disagreements, I will respect you fellow "seekers of truth." 3. I will not fall into negative behavior or words, such as insinuations, exaggerations, blames, or personal attacks. I respectfully ask you to do the same. 4. I will pray we will all find the truth and strive to fulfill the two greatest commandments: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.’ The second is this: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ There is no other commandment greater than these." (Mark 12:30-31) This site will occasionally feature paid posts! I always 100% verify everything I endorse. You will not see posts for products or sites I would not use myself.
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